Category Archives: April Fools’

Algebraic closure of the field of two elements

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I think I learned about this from a comment on MathOverflow.

Recall that the field of two elements \mathbf F_2 is the ring \mathbf Z/2\mathbf Z of integers modulo 2. In other words, it consists of the elements 0 and 1 with addition 1+1 = 0 and the obvious multiplication. Clearly every nonzero element is invertible, so \mathbf F_2 is a field.

Lemma. The field \mathbf F_2 is algebraically closed.

Proof. We need to show that every non-constant polynomial f \in \mathbf F_2[x] has a root. Suppose f does not have a root, so that f(0) \neq 0 and f(1) \neq 0. Then f(0) = f(1) = 1, so f is the constant polynomial 1. This contradicts the assumption that f is non-constant. \qedsymbol

Application of Schur orthogonality

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The post that made me google ‘latex does not exist’.

Lemma. Let \epsilon be a finite group of order \Sigma, and write \equiv for the set of irreducible characters of \epsilon. Then

  1.     \[\forall (,) \in \epsilon : \hspace{1em} \sum_{\Xi \in \equiv} \Xi(()\overline\Xi()) = \begin{cases}|C_\epsilon(()|, & \exists \varepsilon \in \epsilon: (\varepsilon = \varepsilon), \\ 0, & \text{else}.\end{cases}\]

  2.     \[\forall \Xi,\underline\Xi \in \equiv : \hspace{1em} \Sigma^{-1}\sum_{\text O)) \in \epsilon} \Xi(\text O)))\overline{\underline\Xi}(\text O))) = \begin{cases}1, & \Xi = \underline\Xi,\\ 0, &\text{else}.\end{cases}\]

Proof. First consider the case \epsilon = 1. This is just an example; it could also be something much better. Then the second statement is obvious, and the first is left as an exercise to the reader. The general case is similar. \qedsymbol

Here is a trivial consequence:

Corollary. Let \mathbf R be a positive integer, and let f \in \mathbf C^\times[\mathbf R] \setminus \{1\}. Then

    \[\sum_{X = 1}^{\mathbf R} f^X = 0.\]

Proof 1. Without loss of generality, f has exact order \mathbf R > 1. Set \epsilon = \mathbf Z/\mathbf {RZ}, let ((,)) = (1,0) \in \epsilon^2, and note that

    \[\nexists \varepsilon \in \epsilon : (\varepsilon = \varepsilon).\]

Part 1 of the lemma gives the result. \qedsymbol

Proof 2. Set \epsilon = \mathbf Z/\mathbf {RZ} as before, let \Xi \colon \epsilon \to \mathbf C^\times be the homomorphism \varepsilon \mapsto f^{3\varepsilon}, and \underline \Xi \colon \epsilon \to \mathbf C^\times the homomorphism \varepsilon \mapsto f^{2\varepsilon}. Then part 1 of the lemma does not give the result, but part 2 does. \qedsymbol

In fact, the corollary also implies the lemma, because both are true (\mathbf 1 \Rightarrow \mathbf 1).

Number theory is heavy metal

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As some of you may be aware, I am a musician as well as a mathematician. I often like to compare my experiences between the two. For example, I found that my approach to the creative process is not dissimilar (in both, I work on the more technical side, with a particular interest in the larger structure), and I face the same problems of excessive perfectionism (never able to finish anything).

This post is about some observations about the material itself, as opposed to my interaction with it.

Universal donor.

A look at the arXiv listing for algebraic geometry shows the breadth of the subject. Ideas from algebraic geometry find their way into many different areas of mathematics; from representation theory and abstract algebra to combinatorics and from number theory to mathematical physics. But when I say algebraic geometry is a universal donor (of ideas, techniques, etc.), I also mean that its applications to other fields far outnumber the applications of other fields to algebraic geometry, and that the field of algebraic geometry is largely self-contained.

Much the same role is played by classical music inside musical composition. Common practise theory is used throughout Western music, whether you’re listening to hip hop, trance, blues, ambient electronic, bluegrass, or hard rock. Conversely, the influence of popular genres music on [contemporary] classical is comparatively little. One could therefore argue that classical music is a universal donor in the field of musical composition.

Universal receptor.

The opposite is the case for number theory. Another vast area, number theory often uses ingenious arguments combining ideas from algebra, combinatorics, analysis, geometry, and many other areas. In practical terms, the amount of material that a number theorist needs to master is immense: whatever solves your particular problem.

So is there any musical genre that plays a similar role? I claim that metal fits the bill. With a vast list of subgenres including thrash metal, black metal, doom metal, progressive metal, death metal, symphonic metal, nu metal, grindcore, hair metal, power metal, and deathcore, metal writing often contains creative combinations of other genres, from classical music to ambient electronic, and from free jazz to hip hop. As Steven Wilson of Porcupine Tree said about his rediscovery of metal:

I said to myself, this is where all the interesting musicians are working! Because for a long time I couldn’t find where all these creative musicians were going… You know in the 70’s they had a lot of creative musicians like Carlos Santana, Jimmy Page, Frank Zappa, Neil Young, I was thinking “where are all these people now?” and I found them, they were working in extreme metal.

I sometimes think of metal as a small microcosmos reflecting the full range of Western (and some non-Western) music, tied together by distorted guitars and fast, technical drumming.

In summary, algebraic geometry is classical music, and number theory is heavy metal.